Urine

Urine consists of urea and water. Urea is somewhat like ammonia since it is toxic to cells. This aspect of urea makes urine sterile. Freshwater fish must urinate alot because the water level in their cells is lower then the surrounding environment. Saltwater fish urinate very little because the water level in their cells is higher then the surrounding environment. Organisms waste energy in the form of heat energy. Saltwater fish urinate by allowing water to brush off the urea located on their gills. The loop of Henle in the kidney reabsorbs water and ions from urine. 

How do Hormones work?

Natural selection-Amino acid sequence-Proteins-DNA

Nobody has a full understanding of hormones, people just know that they are another phase of development. By age 6 almost 95% of hormones are already in affect. Before puberty cells go through a growth spurt. Hormones affecting humans have been compared to a tree's development. During puberty humans are very vulnerable, have many mood swings, and use or lose cell connections. Simply hormones are just proteins.

Why is life based on Carbon?

Life is based off of carbon because carbon allows itself to form bonds with other atoms and can bond to other carbon atoms with one, two, or three bonds. It easily bonds up to four times and can form virtually unlimited chains. The simplicity of structures come together to build longer and more complex chains, but many combinations do not work putting a limit on the length of a carbon chain. The working chain has to be able to duplicate or recreate itself. If a chain cannot then it is a dead end and it not fit for survival.

Virus

A virus is a highly characterized parasite, that mutates and evolves. A virus also interacts with a population by keeping it from overproducing. Viruses reproduce by infecting a host cell and using its organelles to create numerous copies of itself.A virus has all to be living but it falls just short of the definition of living organisms.

Origins of Life

Amino acids can be found within meteors and other stellar objects. Amino acids make up proteins which are the building blocks of life and can be altered under extreme conditions to create larger and more complex amino acids. An extreme condition occurred when Meteors hit the Earth, which occurred in Earth's early history. There is an unexplainable question between how microbes were created from amino acids. Microbes got started in extreme conditions and may have had their building blocks from outer space. After the bombardment 3.5 bya microbes started photosynthesizing and allowed green slime to take over the earth. The oxygen as a waste gas created an ozone that allowed complex life forms to take hold. The oxygen level rose from less then 1% to 21% which allowed complex life forms to take hold.

An Introduction to Metabolism

• Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers
• Enzymes are substrate specific
• The activation site is in the enzyme's catalytic center
• A cell's physical and chemical environment affect enzyme activity.
• Organic Compounds= living system, questions about how life takes the step from chemicals to life
• Chemistry of living has to be controlled, this control comes from enzymes
• Nonliving things do not have to be controlled
• Reactions occur fast enough to keep us alive thanks to enzymes

Periodic Table

• Why is life based on carbon
• proton-positive
• Uranium highest stable atom
• 186,000 miles per second electron
• no matter is solid
• first orbit is 2 for oxygen
• atomic theory 2-8 electrons
• Hydrogen one orbit, one electron
• Biological four groups are lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins
• Not correct type of atoms to live on Mars
• The environment is adapted to us
• The theory of evolution is credited to Charles Darwin
• Lipids=cell membrane
• Sugar is are main energy source

Science

• Philosophy of thought
• Bad science is combustion engine
• State question
• Form Hypothesis
• Test Hypothesis
• Conclusion
• Not measurable=not science
• Will never do good science in biology
• 99.9% is the highest degree in science
• Theory supports fact and vice versa
• Facts change
• Belief isn't science

Genes

1. Book-Human, Name-Genome, consists of AT's and GC's
2. Chapter-Chromosome
3. Sections-Genes and Protein synthesis
4. Paragraphs-mRNA-transcription and gene splicing
5. Sentences-Gene structure, Start-->Functional partion-->Stop
6. Words-Codons-64
7. Letters-base pairs-AT, GC, U/ which are nitrogen bases

Mitosis

The stages of Mitosis are as follows:

• Interphase- The cell grows and replicates its DNA and centrioles.
• Prohase- The chromatin condenses into chromosomes. The centrioles separate, and a spindle begins to form. The nuclear envelope breaks down.
• Metaphase- The chromosomes line up across the center of the cell. Each chromosome is connected to a spindle fiber at its centromere.
• Anaphase- The sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and are moved apart. 
  
• Telophase- The chromosomes gather at opposite ends of the cell and lose their distinct shapes. Two new nuclear envelopes will form.
• Cytokinesis- The cytoplasm pinches in half. Each daughter cell has an identical set of duplicate chromosomes.

week of 9/29-10/3

Monday= TEST

Tuesday=Today we analyzed the molecular basis of heredity which includes gene regulation. 

A few bullets include:

• All (with a few exceptions) of an organism's cells have the same DNA but differ based on the expression of genes.
• Differentiation of cells in multicellular organisms
• Cells responding to their environment by producing different types and amounts of protein.
• Advantages (injury repair) and disadvantages (cancer) of the overproduction, underproduction or production of proteins at the incorrect times.

Wednesday-Thursday= We learned to interpret and predict patterns of inheritance which also includes dominant, recessive, and intermediate traits. Also multiple alleles, polygenic traits, sex linked traits, independent assortment, test cross, pedigree, and Punnett squares were discussed in class.

We learned alot of information during the course of these two days. A summary is as follows: 

• We identified and determined genotypes and phenotypes. Phenotypes are the result of both the environment and the genotype.
• We also discussed Mendel's experiments and laws.
• Interpreted karyotypes and looked for gender and chromosomal abnormalities.
• Understanding that dominant traits mask recessive alleles.
• There are a variety of intermediate patterns of inheritance, including codominance and incomplete dominance. Incomplete dominance (partial dominance) results in the blending of traits and Co-dominant alleles result in the expression of both traits. We also learned how to solve and interpret co-dominant crosses involving multiple alleles.
• Autosomal inheritance patterns and characteristics of sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, and Huntington's disease.
• Parentage is possible by determining the parents and offsprings blood type. There are A, B, AB, and O blood types which result from alleles Ia, Ib, and i.
• Recognizing that some traits are controlled by more than one pair of genes, which is identified by the presence of a wide range of phenotypes.
• An understanding of human sex chromosomes and crosses involving sex linked traits. Males are more likely to express a sex linked trait because they only have one X chromosome that is infected and they don't have another X chromosome to mask this allele.
• The process of meiosis leads to independent assortment and ultimately to a greater genetic diversity. Genes being on separate chromosomes is an important result of meiosis.
• Given certain phenotypes suggest an appropriate test cross to determine the genotype of an organism. and identify the genotypes of individuals from a given pedigree.
• Finally we learned about solving and interpreting problems featuring monohybrid crosses, (Parental, F1, F2 generations) and about determining parental genotypes based on offspring ratios. 

Friday= Today we reviewed what we learned last Friday, with the addition of a few things.

We learned about the uses of DNA fingerprinting, applications of transgenic organisms in agriculture and industry including pharmaceutical applications such as the production of human insulin, and that ethical issues and implications of genomics and biotechnology such as stem cell research and genetically modified organisms.

Week of 9/22-26

Monday=We analyzed the molecular basis of reproduction which is called DNA replication. 3.01

DNA unzips through DNA polymerase and two chains are produced. These chains each go through base pairing where certain chemicals combine with the existing chemical to form an exact copy of the original DNA. This is a semi-conservative process as the two strands are built upon with another chemical. A attaches to T and G attaches to C. 

Some important things about DNA are: mutations can change DNA code, the replication of DNA within the cell cycle, that DNA has weak hydrogen bonds which allow it to break apart and form two new strands of DNA, its structure, and that it replicates itself through complementary base pairing.

Tuesday=We reviewed what we learned about asexual and sexual reproduction from Friday.

Wednesday=Continuation of Tuesday's lesson plan of review.

Thursday=We learned about the aspects of protein synthesis which are transcription and translation. 

We learned to understand that the sequence of nucleotides in DNA codes for proteins which are the central key to cell function and life.

Protein Synthesis:

• Transcription produces an RNA copy of DNA, which is further modified into the three types of RNA. 
  
• mRNA traveling to the ribosome (rRNA)
• Translation-tRNA supplies appropriate amino acids
• Amino acids linked by peptide bonds to form polypeptides which are folded into proteins.
• Use of a codon chart to determine the amino acid sequence produced by a particular sequence of bases.

Friday=The human genome project and applications of biotechnology were taught today.

Today we developed an understanding for the reasons for establishing the human genome project, usefulness in determining whether individuals may carry genes for genetic conditions, and in developing gene therapy.

Lastly we watched a movie on cloning, and had a discussion about the role of cloning in our future and the moral issues concerning cloning.

Week of 9-15/19

Monday=Continued from last Thursday and Friday but with the addition of one thing. We learned about Energy use and release in biochemical reactions. ATP is the source of energy for cell activities, and cells store and use energy in ATP and ADP molecules.

Tuesday=Today we investigated and analyzed the following bioenergetic reactions: aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and photosynthesis. We also learned the equations to photosynthesis 6CO2+6H2O(Reactants)-->O2+C6H12O6(Products) and cellular respiration 6O2+C6H12O6-->6CO2+6H2O. We also learned about factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis and of cellular respiration. 

Anaerobic respiration includes lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation. We compared anaerobic and aerobic organisms in class.

Finally we compared and contrasted these processes with their regard to efficiency of ATP formation, the types of organisms using these processes, and the organelles involved. 

Wednesday=Continuation from Tuesday

Thursday=Cricket Lab

Today we tested if males or females respire at different rates. My group concluded that the male cricket consumed more oxygen and produced more carbon dioxide in a 90 second session then the female cricket. This may have been affected by the high levels of testosterone in the male crickets.

Friday=Today we compared and contrasted the characteristics of asexual and sexual reproduction.

• We recognized mitosis as a part of asexual reproduction and meiosis as a part of sexual reproduction.
  
• We noted similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis including: replication and separation of DNA and cellular material, changes in chromosome number, number of cell divisions, and number of cells produced in a complete cycle.
• We also put together mitosis diagrams and described what happened at each phase during the process.
• Finally we learned about the sources of variation which included: crossing over, random assortment of chromosomes, gene mutations, nondisjunction, and fertilization.

Week of 9/8-12

Monday= Continuation of Friday's review.

Tuesday= Major Exam today.

Wednesday-Friday= Continual review of past concepts.

This week was used to review and test upon previous concepts. 

Week of 9-2/5

Monday=No school

Tuesday= Continuation of Friday

Wednesday= Reviewed the cell concepts we learned last week.

Thursday= Reviewed communication among cells within an organism.

Friday= Reviewed the maintenance of homeostasis, and the movement of materials into and out of cells.

Week of 8:25/29

Monday and Tuesday= These days we continued to learn about enzymes.

Wednesday- We investigated and described the structure and functions of cells, their organelles, and their specializations. 2.02 

• We also learned about the structure and function of: nucleus, plasma membrane, cell wall, mitochrondria, vacolues, chloroplasts, and ribosomes.   
  
• Proficient use and understanding of light microscopic techniques. Total power magnification as well as steps in proper microscope usuage.
• Hierarchy of cell organization: Cells to tissues to organs to organ systems.
• Structure of cells as it relates to thier specific functions.
• We also viewed a variety of cells with particular emphasis on the differences between plant and animal cells. 

Thursday= We learned about communication among cells within an organism.

Chemical signals may be released by one cell to influence the activity of another cell. For example, a nerve cell can send a message to a muscle cell or another nerve cell. Recepotr proteins and hormones were also discussed in class today.

Friday= We investigated and analyzed the cell as a living system including: the maintenance of homeostasis and the movement of materials into and out of cells.

We also learned about factors affecting this such as temperature, PH, blood glucose levels and water balance. Active transport, passive transport, diffusion, osmosis, and the porous nature of the semipermeable plasma membrane were also discussed. Something we learned today was how to predict changes in osmotic pressures as cells are placed in solutions of differing concentrations. 

Sex Chromosomes

The Sex Chromosomes are X and Y. XX is a female and XY is a male. These chromosomes come from the gametes which are an egg and a sperm cell. A sperm cell is either X or Y and an egg is a X. The SRY triggers testis growth in the 8th week of prenatal development and is located on the Y chromosome. All embryos are female until the SRY kicks in. There are many exceptions and dieases linked to these sex chromosomes.